Evolutionary Psychology

= Evolutionary Psychology =

The fields of psychology and evolution developed as separate entities. Various scholars began merging their ideologies, and evolutionary psychology became a distinct field of study during the 1980's. Evolutionary psychology is the study of human behavior through a biological lens. One must understand evolution to fully understand humanity according to evolutionary psychologists, so evolution is applied to the field of psychology, the study of the mind and human behavior. The mechanisms of our minds are considered results of adaptations or traits that have evolved over time to promote the maximal fitness of our species. “Evolutionary psychology is based on the presumption that, just like hearts, lungs, livers, kidneys, and immune systems, cognition has a functional structure that has a genetic basis, and therefore has evolved by natural selection. Like other organs and tissues, this functional structure should be universally shared amongst humans and should solve important problems of survival and reproduction. Evolutionary psychologists seek to understand cognitive processes by understanding the survival and reproductive functions they might serve.” Evolutionary psychology posits that humanity functions under universally evolved psychological adaptations designed by natural selection that help a person respond to conflicts that occur among him/her and the environment.

Example(s) of Use in Context
There are several controversial evolutionary theories on rape, homosexuality, physical attractiveness, scent, beauty, aggression/violence, the female orgasm, gender differences, mate choice, symmetry, sexual antagonism, etc

In terms of gender differences and mate choice, David Buss, an evolutionary theorist and professor of psychology, conducted a study illustrating gender differences in mate choice. In evolutionary psychology, it is suggested that males have a greater interest in casual sex than females since because of their genetic make-up. In 1989, Buss conducted a study determining mate preferences and sexual preferences among males and females. He tested over 10,000 individuals drawn from 37 cultures from six different continents, finding that the previous predictions the study suggested were plausible. Males seek out females who signal “reproductive capacity,” while females seek males who signal “resource acquisition” Males have a higher chance of spreading their seed and it takes a minimal amount of sexual energy to do so, and there is a higher chance of more offspring to be created. Therefore, they are more interested in more frequent encounters of sex because of this evolutionary motivation. Women, on the other hand, are less interested in casual sex because they are motivated to find stable mates who can provide for their offspring and bring them up as successfully as possible. They are therefore more interested in finding a mate who will commit themselves to the relationship. Various findings about the wide cultural variations on these topics contest this study and many others similar to this. Another finding of this study indicated that males preferred mates younger than themselves and females preferred males older than themselves.

Scientific Background
The scientific backgrounds of evolutionary biology and psychology come together in a unique blend that analyzes human behavior based upon innate or covert reproductive motivations among the sexes. For example, evolutionary psychology seeks to address aspects of Darwin's sexual selection theory in relation to human behavior.

Below is one theory of how the mind works within the branch of evolutionary psychology:

Evolutionary psychology understands the mind through a very unique model of human cognition called the computational model of mind. Note this is only one theory of mind. In a recent presentation of evolutionary psychology's theoretical tenets by Tooby and Cosmides in 2005, it is explained: "1.The brain is a computer designed by natural selection to extract information from the environment. 2.Individual human behavior is generated by this evolved computer in response to information it extracts from the environment. Understanding behavior requires articulating the cognitive programs that generate the behavior. 3.The cognitive programs of the human brain are adaptations. They exist because they produced behavior in our ancestors that enabled them to survive and reproduce. 4.The cognitive programs of the human brain may not be adaptive now; they were adaptive in ancestral environments. 5.Natural selection ensures that the brain is composed of many different special purpose programs and not a domain general architecture. 6.Describing the evolved computational architecture of our brains “allows a systematic understanding of cultural and social phenomena” (18)."

Debates
According to Herrnstein-Smith, evolutionary psychology is still not well-received by other legitimate sources of knowledge. This is partially because the field is currently attending to the obstacles it faces and other fields of science and psychology cannot fully respect it until it practices science in a more ethical manner. She writes, "'The central assumptions of evolutionary psychology remain controversial within the relevant natural science fields and among cognitive scientists more generally.'" Various scientific fields challenge evolutionary psychology's validity conceptually and empirically. The list includes but is not limited to disciplines such as developmental psychology, developmental genetics, paleoanthropology, engineers, and genetic anthropologists. Evolutionary psychology posits many theories with hypotheses, but in many cases they are not solidly concluded as anything more than theories based on assumptions; in other words, they are completely unsupported by sound, empirical evidence. This is extremely problematic, and as some studies have transcended this failing of the newly emerging field, others do not realize the urgency to alter this with continuing issue.

There are several types of different feminist groups, and as their theories differ, feminist consciousness in general holds a truly critical and crucial viewpoint in terms of ethics and evolutionary psychology. Ever since Darwin's theories of sexual selection emerged into the public sphere, there has been a false ideology that plagues our minds with biased information regarding the "natural" gender roles of women. These sexual selection theories reduce and denounce women to mere reproductive functions and passivity, but there has been recent interest and more extensive study of examples throughout the human and animal kingdom that virulently dismantle these patriarchal ideas rampant throughout the fields of evolutionary psychology as well as sociobiology and evolutionary biology. Recent work by feminist scientists, particularly in studies of primatology, indicate that perpetuating a disregard for the female in evolutionary psychology is extremely detrimental to our understandings of human nature, demoting equality of the sexes and completely disregarding the complexity of female social interactions and mating techniques, which are diverse, and in many instances reflect the defiance of such stereotypes. Recent consideration for more consistent and focused attention to females in evolutionary psychology has been addressed, and more females have entered the field, yielding a more diverse approach to the field. To contribute to the problems of many studies legitimizing the gender roles of women in this manner, Patricia Gowaty, an evolutionary biologist and ecologist who considers herself a feminist, suggests that: "'Many more tests on the 'basic natures' of males and females remain to be described in the vast majority of species; interesting alternative hypotheses exist to explain sex roles; and these alternative hypotheses offer an empirical challenge to those interested in understanding the causes and consequences of sexual and reproductive behavior.'" Some evolutionary psychologists have a tendency to make sweeping generalizations about human behavior in relation to reproductive motivations. It is easy and convenient for to create stories that serve as plausible tales about how evolution might explain our behaviors, or what are referred to as just-so stories. More importantly, we must have viable methods that test these hypotheses and theories and avoid this problem.

Biological determinism is the theory that one's genetic makeup determines all of their traits and qualities. For example, one's intelligence or personality is a product of their gene's and no other external factors. Biological determinism, sometimes referred to as genetic determinism, completely overlooks one's social environment and cultural implications in determining the aspects of a human or animal. Many studies of evolutionary psychology yield biologically deterministic results, a prime example of nature winning the nature vs. nurture battle. Critics contest the fact that one's environment has no effect on a person as this reduces humans to their biology. Under biological determinism, researchers often argue that there is a “gene for” behaviors or traits. Biological determinism is problematic because it is a form of “preformationism” or the belief that “the behavior exists prior to developmental processes and interactions." Evolutionary psychology posits that our higher cognitive abilities set us apart from other species, and that these traits have innate roots; however, there are many opponents of this that remind evolutionary psychologists that some cognitive traits are acquired. This is one example of the nature/nurture problem that constantly reappears as a major obstacle of evolutionary theories.

Evolutionary psychologists conduct many studies that claim to find universals among the human race. Avoiding absolutes and universals is vital: cultural diversity conclusively contests many of the posited universal claims made by evolutionary psychologists and evolutionary biologists alike; conducting studies on such large-scale continuities and positing them without sufficient evidence is essentially bad science, meaning that empirically it does not stand up to scrutiny and relies on preconceived notions or false background assumptions. Evolutionary psychologists must also be particularly cautious when making claims about nonhuman animal behavior in relation to human behaviors. Anthropomorphism, or the tendency for humans to project or attribute (conscious or unconsciously) human-like characteristics as well as language onto nonhuman animals when describing and analyzing their behavior, characteristics, and overall qualities.

Prominent Researchers of Evolutionary Psychology
These are some of the most well-known theorists, professors, and researchers of evolutionary psychology:

Leda Cosmides and John Tooby, professors of The Center of Evolutionary Psychology at the University of California, Santa Barbara

Martin Daly Margo Wilson

Richard Dawkins

Robin Dunbar Steven Pinker

Steven W. Gangestad

David C. Geary

Sarah Blaffer Hrdy

Kevin B. MacDonald

Robert Kurzban Geoffrey Miller

Matt Ridley

Donald Symons

Robert Trivers David Buss

Author
Chelsea Faria